Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport

Question: Discuss about the Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. Answer: Introduction: Australian Baseball Federation (ABF) is responsible for governing all the national activities related to baseball in Australia. Baseball is popular in mainland territories and states but it lack the craziness of the people regarding other leading sports like cricket (Antolihao, 2012). For that reason, majority of the school kids are guided towards other sports rather than baseball. ABF has focused on enhancing the acceptance and popularity of the baseball in all parts of Australia. ABF has tried to present the baseball game in a more glamorous way so that more number of kids joined the game. ABF is primarily looking to target the grass root level of the Australian economy in order to produce more world class players. For that reason, ABF has tried to represent the baseball game in an attractive way. ABF has announced 25% stakeholders along with the Major League Baseball for enhancing the interest of Australian people (Kawai Nichol, 2014). ABF also had played a critical role in starting Australian Baseball League in November, 2010. ABF has made 7 territory and state member associations for covering all areas in Australian market (Baseball.com.au, 2017). ABF also has focused on enhancing the present infrastructure in a major way. ABF also has played critical role in ensuring sponsorship and other activities in an effective manner. For that reason, ABF seeks to leverage the sports image, brands and assets to maintain economic growth and benefit in a major way. ABF also has taken initiatives for developing clear brand image for both national women and men team. For that rea son, it has focused on stakeholder engagement, financial management and governance for maximizing the impact on the Australian market. It has also focused on including top baseball player across the world within the major league for grabbing the attention of the Australian people. Presently, ABF has around 60,000 members who are looking to increase the present condition of baseball game (Murray et al., 2016). Success factors: From the beginning, ABF has initiated innovative strategies for enhancing the popularity in Australia. ABF has tried to initiate visionary leadership for empowering members to take progressive effort to the success of baseball (Burton, 2017). ABF mission statement focuses on positioning the baseball in the non-traditional market of Australia. For that reason, people, leadership, integrity, cooperation and partnership is regarded as the prime success factors for ABF in enhancing the popularity level of baseball. ABF has consciously tried to maintain transparency in all the initiated strategies for developing a cost effective operational process. Enhancing the facilities and infrastructure in Australia is another prime factor that contributed hugely to the success of baseball. ABF has influenced political and commercial level (Federal, State and Local) to fulfil long-term facility needs in a major way (Dabscheck, 2012). It has allowed ABF to increase the total number of players partici pated in the professional league. ABF marketing strategies have also focused on developing long-term marketing strategies for position baseball uniquely in the Australian market. Potential issues, challenges or concerns for Australian Baseball Federation: It can be assessed that effective fulfilment of all the aims and objectives of ABF require huge amount of investment, which cannot be complete with the external government support. However, Australian government has focused on providing necessary financial supports to ABF for accomplishing all the goals in an effective manner. Still, increasing cost and requirement has created challenges for ABF to gather required amount of funding for fulfilling business objectives (Nichol, 2016). For that reason, it has induced ABF to focus more on enhancing the participation rate in a major way. In addition, baseball league of Australia also has faced ethical challenges regarding the misbehaviour of the athletes for fulfilling all the business responsibilities. As a result, ABF has emphasized on developing effective coaching and training session for avoiding such incidents in an effective manner. It has enhanced the required cost for fulfilling all the activities associated with the business proce ss. In addition, ABF is looking to increase the reach of marketing activities in the global platform for representing Australian baseball league as the prime sporting event (Stewart et al., 2012). As a result, it has also increased the cost associated with the marketing activities that ABF needs to gather for fulfilling business activities. Features of the sports environment and its influence on operating environment: As mentioned earlier, baseball is not as popular as other sports in Australia. For that reason, majority of the children tends to focus on other sports like cricket or football rather than baseball. It has influenced ABF to face immense competition in enhancing the popularity level of baseball (Lathlean et al., 2017). As a result, ABF has to invest huge amount in the marketing activities for grabbing the attention of global and domestic people in a major way. On the other hand, ABF has also faced huge amount of challenges in influencing older people to become the member, as they would not ABF to relate themselves in different type of marketing activities. Moreover, several other sports are also trying to increase its popularity in the Australian market, which increased the difficulties for ABF in moving towards sustainable changes aspect (Stewart et al., 2012). It has influenced ABF to develop commercial partnerships with different corporate franchise for gathering required fund (Ena d, 2014). It has encouraged ABF to develop strong media and PR relationship for fulfilling all requirements of the operational process. Conclusion: From the above discussion, it can be assessed that ABF has ABF to grab the attention of the people of Australia in a major way. It has targeted from the grass root level to enhance the overall condition of the baseball in Australia. ABF has also played critical role in performing different types of marketing activities for creating desired amount of impact on the market. The territory wise segregation has also helped ABF to cover each segment of Australian market, which has increased the membership participation rate in a major way. References: Antolihao, L. (2012). From baseball colony to basketball republic: post-colonial transition and the making of a national sport in the Philippines.Sport in Society,15(10), 1396-1412. Baseball.com.au. (2017).Baseball.com.au. Retrieved 5 April 2017, from https://baseball.com.au Burton, R. (2017). Baseballs Curious Journey.Baseball Beyond Our Borders: An International Pastime, 285. Dabscheck, B. (2012). A primer on Australian player associations.The Economic and Labour Relations Review,23(3), 61-70. Enad, J. (2014). Increasing incidence of hamstring injuries in Major League Baseball pitchers: original research article.International SportMed Journal,15(3), 225-230. Kawai, K., Nichol, M. (2014). Labor in Nippon Professional Baseball and the Future of Player Transfers to Major League Baseball.Marq. Sports L. Rev.,25, 491. Lathlean, T., Finch, C., Gastin, P., Newstead, S. (2017). Wellness and injury risk in elite junior Australian football players.Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport,20, e93-e94. Murray, N. B., Black, G. M., Whiteley, R. J., Gahan, P., Cole, M. H., Utting, A., Gabbett, T. J. (2016). Automatic Detection of Pitching and Throwing Events in Baseball With Inertial Measurement Sensors.International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 1-18. Nichol, M. (2016). 4. Making sense of labor regulation in Major League Baseball: some insights from regulatory theory.Research Handbook of Employment Relations in Sport, 69. Stewart, B., Nicholson, M., Smith, A., Westerbeek, H. (2012). Chapter 1-Sport and Australian society: Chapter taken from Australian Sport: Better by Design? ISBN: 978-0-203-46292-8.Routledge Online Studies on the Olympic and Paralympic Games,1(48), 3-15.

Ap Literature Essay Sample - Preparing For the AP English Literature Essay

Ap Literature Essay Sample - Preparing For the AP English Literature EssayAp Literature Essay samples can be found in a variety of places. You can find free Ap Literature Essay samples and resources from the Internet. These sites offer a wealth of materials to help you prepare for the AP Literature Essay tests. Once you are prepared with an appropriate essay, you may write a paper on your own.However, if you need assistance on topics or questions you are having trouble with, a professional AP literature tutor is available to help you. You will need some special preparation materials. In most cases, you will want to get some books on the AP English Literature before your AP exam. After you finish the AP essay test, you will need to study for the AP exam. It may take weeks, but it will be worth it.Many colleges require students to prepare two or three papers. When preparing for the AP literature exam, you may want to create a plan of what you need to study and what you want to do.There are some easy AP English Literature essays that you can complete in a short period of time. Start by looking for textbooks on American Literature. These books may be obtained at the library or purchased.Another popular type of essay is called an Analytical Essay. This is essentially a survey essay that attempts to answer the central questions of the chapter. It gives a summary of the main theme of the chapter, the main viewpoint of the writer, and evaluates the major ideas.Writing in newspapers, magazines, and on the Internet is becoming more common. If you would like to have some writing experience, a college education, or to get some teaching experience, then you can choose this type of writing. It is recommended that you read as much as possible on the topic you are writing about. It is also suggested that you begin writing immediately after completing the A level, so that you will not need to study for the AP literature exam.Online writing resources are a great resource for AP essay samples. If you search for 'AP writing samples' on Google, you will find hundreds of resources for different types of writing on the AP English Literature. A few of these are for high school students, which include AP Literature Essay samples. The other sites have information on how to use common essay writers for the AP Exam.

Natural Vegetation of your Area Take

The natural vegetation of your suburb A Pre-European Vegetation Community of Sydney The pre-European vegetation community of Sydney was made up of grassy woodlands. The grass in these woodlands was tall and perennial. The woodlands had a variety of large wild flowers. Shrubs were also present in these woodlands. The examples of these wild flowers and shrubs were the yams, wattles, and peas (Benson 6).Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Natural Vegetation of your Area Take-home lab assignment specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Pre–European vegetation in Sydney had a range of vegetation. They ranged from fire tolerant to fire intolerant vegetation. The Bushes were very thick. This was because there was no careless clearing of bushes. In addition, cases of fire in these areas during Pre-European vegetation period were very rare. In Sydney, different grass boxes grew as a result of high nutrient soils and high rai nfalls. Trees like Leptospermum spp and Eucalyptus camaldulensis were dominant on the river banks (Benson 6). At the coast, there were mangroves, salt marshes, and sea grass. This vegetation grew in bays and estuaries. Last, the tablelands had peat bogs and lagoon in the low lying areas (Benson and Howell 8). In conclusion, pre-European vegetation in Sydney was mainly made up of trees, grass, shrubs, and wild flowers. Changes to this vegetation community in the Post European Period Sydney’s basin covers a large region from the Bowen basin to the Gunnedah basin. It has Premo-Triassic sediments on the onshore side and over 5000 meters of sediments on the offshore. The basin overlies an area of carboniferous and volcano-clastic sediment that indicates intense geo-morphological changes before the period of the basin formation. Geologists believe that the Sydney’s basin was formed during the early Permian period. The current Sydney’s offshore is a migration path for many people each year. However, the onshore has become a hub for several cities because of their attractive features. In 1820, Sydney’s suburbs experienced cases of frequent fires (Attenbrow 42). The effects of these fires can be seen in some parts of Sydney.Advertising Looking for report on geography? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Factors which influence Sydney vegetation The geology and geomorphology of the Sydney Basin and how your suburb fits into this region Geologists believe that Sydney took its shape during the expansion of the earth crust. The prior stages of development came about when the continental rift was filling the marine volcanic sediments. As a result of coal deposits, the upper parts of the Sydney’s basin had a quartz sand stone covering. This sand stone covering is known as the Hawkesbury Sandstone. The deposits of Hawkesbury were made available by rivers flowing into this region. The accum ulation of sediments led to the formation of a thin cap of shale on the sand stones. The late stage of basin filling is a representation of the north-eastern bio-region that sometimes experiences volcanic eruptions. The coastal side has got most of Sydney’s mountains and escarpments. The blue mountain has a frontal slope made from lap stone monocline (Attenbrow 43). Most of the Sydney’s basin is an elevation of sand stone plateau. The rest of the basin is a hunter plateau, and a low-land Cumberland plain (Benson and Howell 160). In fitting to my suburb, Sydney Central Business District (CBD), there emerges a difference between my suburb and the geology and geomorphology of Sydney basin. One can hardly recognize the features that were present in the earlier Sydney’s geology and geomorphology in my current suburb. The shorelines in my suburb do not have sand stone ledges, sand beaches, or sand banks at the river mouth. These characteristics were present on early S ydney’s basin. The hills at the bank of the tank stream lack a covering of Hawkesbury sand, which was also a key feature of the Sydney’s basin. What are the important climatic variables that influence the distribution of vegetation communities across Sydney? How does your suburb fit into this regional climate? There are different climatic factors that influence on the distribution of vegetation across Sydney. These factors include temperature, rainfall and soil chemistry (Eamus et al. 7). First, there are changes in the rainfall patterns. These changes have affected growth of vegetation especially the vegetation that relies on high rainfalls. Second, the resulting warming has led to the melting of mountain ice capes leading to frequent flooding. Flooding destroys the vegetation and also leads to soil erosion. Last, the decreasing soil fertility contributes to the destruction of the native forests. Vegetation does not reach maturity because the soils are not fertile eno ugh to provide for a large population of vegetation.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Natural Vegetation of your Area Take-home lab assignment specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In my suburb, there has been clearing of vegetation that can attract rainfall. This clearing has left many mountains and hills under soil erosion threats, reducing the number of native vegetation. How do geology and climate influence the vegetation of your suburb? Sydney CBD suburb has low soil nutrient content. It is only the soil within the rocks that is fertile (Benson and Howell 43). The remaining soil in other areas is infertile. In addition, there has been a destruction of most landforms in my suburb. This destruction affects vegetation distribution because various landforms that support different types of vegetation are destroyed. Climate also affects vegetation distribution in Sydney CBD suburb. The clearing down of the vegetation for the purpose of constructing buildings has led to a change in climate. The increase in temperatures has led to cases of wetlands drying in Sydney CBD suburbs. Drying of wet lands has led to a reduction in the number of swampy vegetation available in Sydney. For example, there is a reduction in the population of mangroves. Compare vegetation in the suburb with another region in Sydney. Explain the differences in vegetation Auburn is different from other suburbs that surround Sydney. In this suburb, cases of forests clearance are low compared to the Sydney’s CBD suburb. Benson and Howell describe Auburn region as a region in which developments were low until World War I (46). Unlike Sydney’s CBD suburb, Auburn experiences substantial rainfall. This rainfall is enough for the growth of vegetation in this region. In Auburn region, one can find remnants of indigenous trees that are rare in other places. The difference between vegetation distribution in Auburn suburb and Sydney’s suburb results from the development factor. The underdeveloped nature of Auburn until World War I was important in avoiding clearing of the forestlands in this region. Conversely, Sydney’s CBD suburbs experienced developments before World War I resulting in land clearing and hence reducing the vegetation population.Advertising Looking for report on geography? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Endangered Ecological Communities in your area Endangered Ecological Community’ in your region In the Sydney’s CBD suburb, the mangroves are the endangered ecological community. During the pre–European community vegetation period, mangroves were available at the coasts, swamps and at the river banks. During this time, a botanist could easily locate the mangroves on the valleys of Tank Stream (Benson and Howell 42). The mangroves in this period were plenty because soils in this region had high nutrients and the land had abundant rainfall. Currently, it is harder for a botanist to locate mangroves when examining cloves in the Sydney’s CBD. This is a result of two different events. First, there has been a destruction of the land forms that favor the growth of mangroves. Second, the swamps in Sydney are drying up. This makes it hard for the mangroves to grow. The difference between endangered and vulnerable community and species The Threatened Species Convers ation act of 1995 has been vital in protecting the endangered and vulnerable species. Endangered species or communities refer to a community or species that are at risk of extinction as a result of existing in few numbers or the changing climate conditions. Vulnerable community or species refer to the species that are likely to become an endangered species in the near future. The International Union for Conservation Nature, IUCN, has the responsibility of recognizing and categorizing species. Species become vulnerable as a result of the adverse natural or manmade circumstances facing them. Unlike, the endangered species, vulnerable species can be abundant in number when the IUCN declares them to be vulnerable and as a result puts strategies that focus on conserving them. Key threatening Processes that are applicable to the community in 3.1. There are various threatening processes to the community of mangroves in the Sydney’s CBD suburb. These processes include the changing cl imate conditions, and the developments of Sydney’s suburb region. The changing climate conditions have led to the drying of swamps. Drying of swamps is a circumstance that threatens the future of the mangrove vegetation. The increasing development activities in Sydney’s suburb region are a threat to the mangroves community. In the process of constructing, the constructors destroy the basic land forms hence destroying the soil chemistry. The soils lose their fertility and become deficient in nutrients that nurture plants. In addition, the constructors have to clear the land for them to get enough space for construction processes. In conclusion, it is fair to state that it is the human activities that threaten the mangroves community in Sydney’s CBD. Works Cited Attenbrow, Val. Sydney’s Aboriginal Past: Investigating the Archaeological and Historical Records. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press Ltd, 2010. Print. Benson, Doug, and Howell Jocelyn. Tak en for Granted: The Bushland of Sydney and its Suburbs. Sydney: Kangaroo Press, 1990. Print. Benson, John. Setting the Seen: The native Vegetation of New South Wales. Sydney: Native vegetation Advisory Council of New South Wales, 1999. Print. Eamus, Derek, Tom Hatton, Peter Cook and Christine Colvin. Ecohydrology: Vegetation Function, Water and Resource Management. Collingwood, Australia: CSIRO Publishing, 2006. Print. This report on Natural Vegetation of your Area Take-home lab assignment was written and submitted by user MotherAskani to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

5 Steps to Finding Success on Your Job Hunt

5 Steps to Finding Success on Your Job Hunt Struggling to find a job? Starting to despair? Feel like you’re doing all of the right things, but still not getting results? It’s possible that you are doing all the right things. But there are a few extra tricks you could still try to give yourself a little edge and improve your prospects on the job hunt. 1. Restrain yourselfIf you’re obviously overqualified for a position, resist the temptation to send your resume in anyway. You’ll look desperate. You’ll feel desperate. And the employer will toss your resume at first glance. If it’s obvious to you; it’s obvious to them. They’ll be worried that you’ll leave for a better opportunity at the drop of a hat- and, let’s face it, they’re probably right.2. Future-fit your resumeDon’t make your resume a simple list of where you’ve been and what you’ve done. Target it for the job you’re looking for, not the ones you’ve had. And cra ft it individually for each position you apply for. Reframe your skills and experience to be a perfect fit. Describe your background and interests in terms this company will jump about. (When in doubt, study the job description and the company’s mission statement for clues.)3. Never assumeYou know what they say: to assume is to make an â€Å"a**† out of â€Å"u† and â€Å"me.† So don’t expect a recruiter or hiring manager to read between the lines of your resume. If you haven’t spelled it out as clearly and concisely as possible- enough to be noticed in a quick skim- then you’re assuming they’ll put more work into reviewing your application than they ever will.4. Branch outDon’t ignore a potential connection because you don’t think they’re directly in a position to help you. You never know who will be your next link to your big fish. Don’t underestimate or overlook anyone. The world is wide and the b roader your network, the better your odds.5. Don’t advertiseIt’s one thing to tell close circles of contacts and friends that you’re looking for a job. It’s another to broadcast it and have to conduct the rest of your search under the scrutiny of your entire social network. Instead, be savvy with your social media. Publicize any transition skill/new qualifications or certifications on LinkedIn. And start being a resource for current trends and information in your other feeds. If people start to see you as an asset, they might think of you spontaneously and come to you first with new opportunities.

Delinguent Youth Subcultures Gangs Research Paper

Delinguent Youth Subcultures Gangs - Research Paper Example Historical Overview Unlawful and criminal subcultures have a long history in industrialized populations. Some experts purports that the dawning of adolescent subcultures, including the delinquent varieties, occurred in the sixteenth century when humongous social changes took place. While others believe that the advent of Capitalism and the Industrial Revolution in Western Europe, which left countless people unemployed and impoverished and disturbed families and communities, gave rise to the criminal tendencies of people, especially of the youth. These ‘dangerous sectors’ of society roamed the countryside and victimized travelers in order to survive, and eventually settled in metropolitan areas -- still subsisting on whatever means available, including theft, robbery and extortion (Cressey, 1983). In the United States, however, there is no certainty as to the exact time when youth gangs appeared. The earliest record confirming their existence traces back to 1783, when the American Revolution ended. Allegedly, these delinquent youths surfaced in a time when the urban conditions of the country overwhelmed them. Meanwhile, other investigators deemed that youth gangs originally came forth after the Mexican Revolution in 1813, when massive Mexican migrations to the Southwest happened. The young members of these new settlers, as hypothesized, might have experienced many difficulties in adjusting to the American way of life, notwithstanding their extreme poverty (Klein, 1995). The Baby Boom, following the Second World War, and the heightened affluence of young people during the Post-World War II economic prosperity of the US combined to fashion a great youth market with economic power who started to create its own identity and groups. At the same period, the young were spending more time in school and their mothers who joined the labor force were away from home, hence parenting and child discipline were somehow neglected. These circumstances of social chan ge, including the strong influence of media, brought about the subculture of young delinquents (Schwartz, 1987). Youth gangs in the United States during the early 19th century were primarily composed of Irish, Italian and Jewish ethnic groups, alongside the Hispanics (Sante, 1991). But in the 1950s, Chinese youth gangs proliferated exponentially. Chin (1996) traced its development to ancient secret society and Triad traditions back to China. As political castaways who were disfavored and alienated in the Asian nation, these US immigrants formed clandestine assemblies and activities such as gambling, prostitution and drug-trafficking. Rivalry among this disintegrated secret society led to violence, while inherent competition and discrimination against its American-born and other ethnic counterparts more often than not resulted in riots, if not heinous crimes (Chin, 1996). Theoretical Underpinnings Although there is no absolute and universally-accepted definition of youth gangs, it is the general consensus of scholars that they are groups whose members meet regularly and whose membership is group-selected based on certain group-defined criteria (Short & Hughes, 2006). Furthermore, they are mostly consisting of a sectoral group who share common identity, values and tradition. Youth who belong to gangs range from ages 12 to 24 (Franzese,

Marketing Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Marketing Communication - Essay Example Amongst our clientele, Burberry Plc is one of the leading customers whom we are serving currently and are responsible for handling all their marketing activities within our region for the period running through July to December 2013. Burberry is a fashion brand, established since 1856, mainly dealing in men and women clothing and similar luxurious accessories (Burberryplc.com). This paper provides a marketing communications report, entailing detailed discussion about the concept of marketing communications and its unfolding role in establishing integrated marketing communications strategy. This report is followed by a marketing communications plan for our denoted client Burberry, stating the objectives that are to be achieved through promotional activities and the corresponding strategies that need to be implemented in order to be successful in achieving goals that were aimed at through these marketing communications. Finally we provide an integrated marketing communications strategy for the client to identify how all marketing elements work together to form the ideal strategy after taking into account implications of environmental and legal issues, sponsorship and role of technology. The paper concludes with recommendations for the retailer which might help it to regain its position in the market as it was in earlier years. MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS REPORT This report mainly focuses on the concept of marketing communications and its powerful role in establishing integrated marketing communications strategy. The contents of report are given as follows: 1. About marketing communications Marketing communication refers to the activities carried out by organizations to spread awareness amongst consumers about their products and convincing them to purchase their goods or services (Keller, 2001). Any form of interaction between a producer and a consumer shall fall under the broad category of marketing communication, provided that the basic intention behind such intera ction is the achievement of organizational objectives. Such interaction will ideally result in a sale and purchase transaction or activity of the company’s product or service (McCarthy, 1978). With help of marketing communication, brand awareness can be enhanced and customer can be convinced to buy the company’s product. Thus, any enterprise’s revenue and profitability will be a direct function of effectiveness of its marketing communications. One of the most commonly used tools for marketing include the 4 C’s of marketing mix which aid the organization to combat against unpredictability of external factors that affect consumer tastes, preferences and capabilities of organization to sell its product. First C denotes the customer who is the primary concern of marketing team since without customer there is no survival possible. Therefore their needs are of utmost importance in devising a strategy and maximizing sales. For this purpose, cost, denoting the se cond C, is essential in determining how customers would perceive the product. High pricing strategies might not be able to grab maximum customers and therefore an optimal balance between cost and quality must be achieved. Convenience refers to the place of sale or market which nevertheless is no longer significant since internet technology and e-commerce facility has enabled companies to be

Ethical Issues Of Genetic Enhancement In Humans Philosophy Essay

Ethical Issues Of Genetic Enhancement In Humans Philosophy Essay While genetic engineering is not a topic that is discussed often in the public realm, genetic research and technology is moving forward at an insane pace. Genetics are now found to show massive improvement in a wide array of areas including: manufacturing and materials, energy, species restoration and management, food and agriculture industries, forestry, and pest control. The most controversial use of genetics, and the focus of this paper, is on human genetic intervention. In the case of genetic treatment used to prevent or cure genetic diseases, the procedure is appropriate and ethically moral. However, in the case of genetic enhancement and the concept of designer babies, any procedure is unethical. A line must be drawn between the definition of genetic enhancement and genetic treatment and with both cases, the invasion and risks to the mother of the child should also be considered. Efforts should be focused on social engineering to improve the behavioral aspects that are the targ et of genetic enhancement advocators. The possibilities of genetic engineering are quite limitless, which is scary if those who are able to do so begin to manipulate all aspects of nature and humanity through science. Yet there are truly some beneficial genetic techniques used not regarding human life that would and do improve many aspects of this earth. In their article Genetic Engineering Could Benefit Society, Joseph F. Coates, John B. Mahaffie, and Andy Hines discuss many of these benefits. For example, some researchers are working to develop a microorganism that would be useful in converting crop wastes into biomass energy while others are boosting plants that have higher yields and better resistance to disease and other conditions. Insects carrying diseases will likely be targeted through genetic technologies and the deadly disease malaria may ultimately be eliminated (176-177). A lot of genetic engineering studies for human use are performed on animals, but animals also serve as a target for their own genetic modification purposes. Designer animals can be enhanced in a similar way to humans for food production, recreation, and pet purposes. Livestock can be customized for increased growth, shortened gestation, and greater nutritional value. In order for animals to withstand rough environments, transgenic animals are being created, which share genes of two or more species (Coates, Mahaffie, and Hines 176). Studies should be done on the ethics of manipulating animals through genetics before further interventions are performed. Before even exploring the ethics of using genetic engineering to enhance or treat humans, current technologies and the reality of genetic modification regarding risks and success should be discussed. In her article Genetic Engineering Could be Dangerous, Susan Wright explains that the human body tends to reject anything foreign, so at this point, its not even probable genetic procedures in humans will work effectively and with little risk (188). Stephen A. Phillips discusses some current studies in his article Human Germline Genetic Enhancement and C.S. Lewiss the Abolition of Man As far as success, animals that are producing genetically modified embryos for study are producing mainly defective embryos and very few embryos survive to produce the viable genetically modified animals. This study will help with the modification of humans, but in order to prevent the birth of children with serious defects, human embryos would need to be tested before implantation and those that are defect ive would need to be destroyed. Not only does the conflict greatly with the high moral values placed on human embryos, but the subjects used would have to be followed for their entire lifetime, as well as their descendants lifetimes (Phillips 118-119). Genetic intervention at this point is focused on two possible paths. Somatic cell modifications would impact only the individual being treated while the path of germline modifications actually change the genome of an individual and their descendents (Phillips 118). Gregory Stock and John H. Campbell look in-depth at the latter path in Engineering the Human Germline: An Exploration of the Science and Ethics of Altering the Genes We Pass to Our Children. Germline modifications include injecting genes into a fertilized egg, which extends gene therapy to the germline and automatically introduces genetic changes into every cell of the body without having to intervene in each cell individually (Stock and Campbell 9). In the article, A Not-so-new Eugenics, R. Sparrow presents another technology, preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), which allows parents to discover the genetics of the embryos they have created by way of in vitro fertilization. They can then choose which embryo to implant into a womans womb and try to bring to term. PGD is currently widely used as powerful technique to prevent birth of children with severe disabilities, but this process involves choosing which people are born, instead of enhancing the traits of existing persons. (Sparrow 33). Gene-based pharmaceuticals can be used as treatments as well, which may use antisense DNA to block the body from transmitting genetic instructions for a disease process. Future therapies would allow genes to be removed, turned off, or blocked, with healthy replacement genes able to be directly inserted into fetuses or administered through injection, inhalation, retroviruses, or pills (Coates, Mahaffie, and Hines 180). Suppose that genetic modification becomes widely efficient, successful, and uncostly- if that day comes, then it is critical to draw a line between genetic enhancement and genetic treatment and ban the former, but allow the latter. While most people see the distinction between the two, it is still hard to define. An attempt at defining the difference states that genetic enhancement involves modifications that are not for the purpose of treating or preventing diseases (Phillips 119). Some issues arise in separating these definitions, however. Alcoholism, for example, can be classified as a disease, which would, following my previous suggestion, would be legal and moral to genetically treat. However, some view alcoholism as a choice, not a disease, meaning that to prevent this through modification would be an enhancement not a treatment. Examples of enhancements often used include height, musical talent, athletic ability, and honesty. Genetic intervention in humans is not all bad. When it is used to treat or prevent life-threatening or severely life-altering diseases it is ethical and practical. An estimate for the year 2025 shows almost 2,000 single gene diseases completely eliminated. Genetic predisposition diseases, such as cancer, are also estimated to be cut in half by 2025. Eliminating genetic diseases such as Alzheimers could take centuries through natural selection but only decades through genetic manipulation (Coates, Mahaffie, and Hines 175-177). Health professionals are ultimately estimated to identify, treat, and prevent 4,000 or more genetic diseases and disorders. These diagnostics include both specific diseases such as Down Syndrome AND behavioral dispositions, such as depression (Coates, Mahaffie, and Hines 180). Behavioral dispositions are another thin line to draw, because I wouldnt consider them life-threatening or necessarily harmful. My diagnosed depression has made me who I am today and I can t imagine not having that behavioral disposition, but others with anxiety, attention deficit disorder, and more, may find it a huge impairment to their life. To examine the ethics of genetic enhancement is to examine the issues with genetic engineering and decide for ones self whether those issues are ethically incorrect. Dov Fox introduces a study in his article that 70% of American respondents disapprove of the use of safe technologies to select for non-disease traits in human offspring, so there is clearly some widespread issues preventing support for genetic enhancement (Fox 174). First of all, genetic modifications will be expensive and unequally distributed. This gives additional advantages to the rich and further disadvantages the poor, widening the gap between the rich and poor to an insurmountable division (Phillips 119). Some argue that this is not so different from the expensive and currently widely accepted environmental enhancements like college test preparation and private musical training (Fox 175). I argue that these environmental enhancements are increasingly less expensive and available to all through school systems, soc ial services, and mentors. The financial gap for genetic enhancement, on the other hand, would be hard to close. This issue is lesser in genetic treatment because treatment for disease already is known to be expensive. Those with permanently ill or diseased children must pay large sums for treatment, so genetic technology does not change that factor. An important question raised is whether those who would attempt to enhance human abilities by genetic modification should be trusted with that power. A very elite group of geneticists would suddenly be the shapers of humanity. There has to be some estimate or criteria of virtue and wisdom one would require to even want to be put in this demanding, high-stress position (Phillips 119). The issue of personal identity arises commonly in discussing bioethics. Genetically modified individuals would be de-natured, and their capacities to pursue the truth, build relationships, and preserve their health would be obstructed (Murphy 196). Ones knowledge of having emerged from someone elses design would lead to feelings of genetic confinement as well. Genetically modified people may be confined to a project or pursuit they may have little passion about, or they may not consider themselves as free to shape their dominant values and ends. Some argue that this is irrelevant because its not like the child could have chosen for themselves who or what they wanted to be (Fox 176), but that is a weak argument. Many designed children would have severe conflict with religious beliefs and being created in the image of God for his purposes. Others may have nonreligious issues with destiny and self-discovery that was altered by their parents choices. Still others argue that the personal identity crisis can be avoided by way of fertility clinicians advising parents to not disclose the genetic enhancement to their children, so the children never know (Fox 176). That proposed solution encourages lying to children, which could lead to not only confusion and pain for the children, but a lifetime of deep burden for parents to bear. Human bodies are furthermore like the product of an engineering genius- each one a delicately balanced, completed, well-functioning masterpiece. There is no evidence that these delicately integrated natural bodily powers will take kindly to such impositions (Powell and Buchanan 7). After all, like that familiar car, whose design shows the touch of an intelligent maker, so are the systems built into living creatures also wonders of design (Richards 103). Humans are not just animals that respond instinctively to our appetites. We are actual objective beings capable of perceiving how things ought to be and conforming ourselves to that reality (Phillips 115). It is a shame to take intricate beings and discuss or treat them as non-complex objects meant to be controlled and manipulated. Talents and abilities are sometimes personified as a natural lottery, with those not born with many talents or abilities as victims of the natural lottery. In this frame of mind, using genetic engineering to raise intelligence or increase talents of these victims would be to compensate for their lack of luck in the natural lottery (Holtug 139). Some also suggest that as long as individuals have the choice of whether- and how- to use genetic technologies, then its okay (Sparrow 32). However, the individuals that are making the choices of how to use the genetic technologies are making it for their children, so the decision is not that of the child itself, its the decision of the parents. And in that case, genetic technologies are not ethical, period. An issues arises in the invasion of the mothers body and the risks associated with her compared to the benefits of the child (Hammond 165). Its easy to consider treatment cases of little invasion and great benefit as ethical, but it gets tricky when the procedure is highly-invasive to the mother yet there are clear benefits for the child. A woman may prefer to avoid pain, inconvenience, expense and risks of a medical procedure as well as the emotional ordeal of undergoing a procedure. This may compromise her moral, religious or superstitious beliefs as well, which could cause her long-term suffering and adversely affect her relationship with her child (Hammond 166). This tough conflict between mother and child risks and benefits would have to be evaluated case by case for ethical solutions. Those who favor genetic enhancements provide some disturbing reasons and opinions. Some claim that parents are morally obliged to pursue enhancements or to produce the best children possible (Sparrow 33). Yes, these are common expectations regarding parenting, but to incorporate gene therapy as part of these expectations is taking it to the next level, especially when gene therapy is still very new and very risky. Furthermore, some pessimists worry about elders being warehoused in communities or homes for the genetically impaired (Coates, Mahaffie, and Hines 180). Even the consideration of labeling those born naturally and unique without genetic modification as genetically impaired is disturbing. Genetic enhancement can be classified as behavioral or physical. Physical enhancement is not ethical in that each person was created the way they are for a reason. If it becomes possible to genetically modify height, eye color, and more, then humans will become more and more alike. Individuality will ultimately be completely eliminated and mankind truly will become robots, living in uniform. For those who believe that people with physical inferior qualities have a disadvantage because they are looked down upon, the proposed solution should focus on social engineering to teach people to be less judgmental and less biased as opposed to genetic engineering. Behavioral enhancement, first of all, does not seem possible. Its claimed that by taking genes from two honest parents, the offspring would be honest. Honesty, trustworthiness, kindness- all these traits that are considered in genetic enhancement- are not chromosomes that are installed into people. They are traits that a human develops over time and based on their surrounding. If people want children to develop these outstanding characteristics, genetic intervention is not the answer. The answer is again social engineering- teaching children to develop these traits through discipline and example (Walker 90). The concern with social engineering is that it would take a long time to see change (Holtug 140). Genetic engineering, however, is also going to take a while with many, many more risks and down sides. Genetic engineering only affects those people who can afford it while social engineering goes viral and is free to all. Scientists spending all this time and resources on genetic engineering could instead study how humans best respond to learning social responsibilities and then implementing effective curriculum into schools, organizations, and families. After all, if social engineering is improved upon, these traits will be passed to future generations through parenting in the most natural, nurturing way. An overview of genetic engineering displays many useful, practical techniques to improve upon aspects of this earth. When it comes to human genetic modification, however, there must be a clear establishment between treatment and enhancement and individuals must stand up against enhancement and instead encourage and practice positive social engineering.